explain xkcd - User contributions [en]

3000: Experimental Astrophysics

2024-11-14T23:36:56Z

HARRISWON2024!:

{{comic
| number = 3000
| date = October 18, 2024
| title = Experimental Astrophysics
| image = experimental_astrophysics_2x.png
| imagesize = 317x490px
| noexpand = true
| titletext = Our experiment will be expensive, but we believe it will produce important spin-offs, especially if we manage to hit the sun from the right angle.
}}

==Explanation==
A {{w|Thorne–Żytkow object}} is an object theorized
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by astrophysicists {{w|Kip Thorne}} and {{w|Anna Żytkow}} which is a {{w|red giant}} or {{w|red supergiant}} with a {{w|neutron star}} at its core. There have been no confirmed sightings, but HV 2112 and HV 11417, both in the {{w|Small Magellanic Cloud}}, have in the past been considered strong candidates.

Cueball is asking for a grant for funding for research into these theoretical astral bodies, the implication being that they are asking funding for telescope time, or even an entirely new telescope, in order to make such investigations possible. However, the caption reveals that he is asking for something completely different: funding to ''create'' the object, with a {{w|Gravity assist|gravitational slingshot}}. Normally, astrophysics is an observational discipline, but the title of the comic (made explicit by the caption text) suggests that this is intended to be a 'practical' experiment to induce a TŻO into existence by actually sending a neutron star into our own {{w|Sun}}.

Cueball is complaining that no one is willing to fund this experiment to create the Thorne–Żytkow object for direct observation. Creating it would be impractical, for several reasons. First, you would need to find (or create!) a neutron star and bring it here, which requires amounts of energy, mass, and precision that we have no current possibility of achieving. Secondly, having a neutron star anywhere near the Sun would most likely destroy the solar system, or at least accelerate its transition to a red giant, which would likely result in {{w|Future_of_Earth#Red_giant_stage|Earth being engulfed by it}} and [[1606|ruining the weather]]. The funding body, presumably based on Earth, would probably find the study would not pass an {{w|Research_ethics|ethics review}}, and the end result would not generate a favorable {{w|environmental impact statement}}, given the almost inevitable destruction of our planet.

A spin-off usually means something additional that was not originally planned. The title text in this comic is a two-layer joke on the phrase "spin-off", meaning that hitting the Sun off-center (from the right angle) would likely have many unintended consequences, but also cause the Sun to start rotating abnormally, due to the added angular momentum, in the same way as hitting a ball on the side makes it spin. A similar idea (the engulfment of a planet or companion star) has been proposed to explain the apparently anomalous rotation of the red supergiant {{w|Betelgeuse}}.{{acn}} "Spin-off" could also refer to material being flung off the Sun due to the impact of the neutron star. If the right material is sent in certain directions, it could have useful, or more likely just 'interesting', properties.

==Transcript==
:[Cueball is standing on a circular podium with a screen behind him. He is holding his palm out towards an unseen audience. On the screen there is a large circle with a solid inner line and a ragged outer line. And then there are two much smaller circles also with solid inner lines and ragged outer lines. One of them is drawn just outside the large circle to the left. An arrow is pointing from this to the center of the large circle, breaking the large circle's edge. It points at the other small circle, which is drawn at the center of the large circle.]
:Cueball: A Thorne-Żytkow object is a hypothesized nested star — a red giant with a neutron star inside it.
:Cueball: So far, no TŻOs have been definitively observed, but your grant could help us change that.

:[Caption below the panel:]
:We're struggling to get funding for our project to slingshot a neutron star into the Sun.

{{comic discussion}}

[[Category:Comics featuring Cueball]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]

3001: Temperature Scales

2024-11-14T23:36:45Z

HARRISWON2024!:

{{comic
| number = 3001
| date = October 21, 2024
| title = Temperature Scales
| image = temperature_scales_2x.png
| imagesize = 740x535px
| noexpand = true
| titletext = In my new scale, °X, 0 is Earths' record lowest surface temperature, 50 is the global average, and 100 is the record highest, with a linear scale between each point and adjustment every year as needed.
}}

==Explanation==
{{incomplete|Created by a TOTALLY CONFORMING TEMPERATURE SYSTEM. Do NOT delete this tag too soon.}}

Since the invention of the {{w|thermometer}}, a number of different {{w|temperature}} scales have been proposed. In modern times, most of the world uses the 1745 {{w|Celsius}} scale for everyday temperature measurements. A small number of countries (the USA and {{w|Territories of the United States|its territories
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}}, the Bahamas, Belize, the Cayman Islands, Liberia, and Palau) retain the {{w|Imperial units|imperial system}} (or the related {{w|United States customary units|US customary system}}), which uses the 1724 {{w|Fahrenheit}} scale. The other widely used temperature scale is the 1848 {{w|Kelvin}} scale, which uses the same degrees as Celsius, but is rooted at {{w|absolute zero}}, making it both useful in scientific calculations and easy to convert to and from Celsius (which, along with degrees Fahrenheit, is now defined relative to kelvins.) The Kelvin scale has been part of the widely adopted official {{w|metric system}} since 1954. Even in countries that use Fahrenheit, scientific measurements are usually made in degrees Celsius or kelvins.

The comic compares these scales, and a number of others, on [[Randall]]'s scale of "cursedness." The joke is highlighting how different the temperature scales are, and how impractical most of them are. All of the listed scales (except Randall's new °X scale defined in the title text) are real, but most are obsolete. Please see also [[1923: Felsius]], a combination of degrees Fahrenheit and Celsius.

{| class=wikitable
! scope="col" | Unit
! scope="col" | Water freezes
! scope="col" | Water boils
! scope="col" | Notes
! scope="col" | Cursedness
! scope="col" | Explanation
|-
| {{w|Celsius}} || 0 || 100 || Used in most of the world || 2/10 || The Celsius (°C) scale, also known as "centigrade", was devised by Swedish astronomer {{w|Anders Celsius}} in 1742 and revised in 1745, a year after his death. 0°C represents the freezing point of water and 100°C represents the boiling point, both under {{w|standard atmospheric pressure}}. The Celsius scale is now defined in terms of kelvin. By the given "cursedness," it is regarded as one of the least problematic temperature scales.
|-
| {{w|Kelvin}} || 273.15 || 373.15 || 0K is absolute zero || 2/10 || Kelvins (plural with a lowercase 'k' as a temperature unit, like meters, ohms, watts, and amps; or as the symbol 'K', without the degrees symbol '°', unlike most other such units) are a unit of temperature devised by {{w|Lord Kelvin}} in 1848. They use the same degrees as Celsius do, but shifted by 273.15 to set absolute zero at 0K (based on the {{w|Boltzmann constant}}.)
<center>Celsius = kelvin – 273.15.</center>
<center>kelvin = Celsius + 273.15.</center>
While kelvins are very useful for calculations in {{w|thermodynamics}} and material physics, they can be unintuitive to laypersons.
|-
| {{w|Fahrenheit}} || 32 || 212 || Outdoors in most places is between 0–100 || 3/10 || Fahrenheit (°F) is officially used in a few countries and informally in several others. It originated in a time when factors of 360 were favored in science over powers of ten, which is why the freezing and boiling points of water are set 180° apart. Devised around 1724, {{w|Daniel Fahrenheit}} chose not to base 0° on the freezing point of water, instead originally setting it at the coldest temperature he could achieve: the freezing point of an {{w|ammonium chloride}} {{w|brine}} solution.
<center>Celsius = (Fahrenheit – 32) × 5/9.</center>
<center>Fahrenheit = Celsius × 9/5 + 32.</center>
Although those reference points are now considered arbitrary and outdated by modern scholars the scale gained popularity in Anglophone countries, and - as Randall notes - some retroactive justification coined that claims 0°F to 100°F as covering the entire range of temperatures humans would encounter in daily life. 100°F is {{w|Human body temperature#Historical understanding|close to normal human body temperature}} (the original intent was to set 90°F as exactly this, 90 being a quarter of 360). The Fahrenheit scale remains officially used only in the U.S., its territories, the Bahamas, Belize, the Cayman Islands, Liberia and Palau.
|-
| {{w|Réaumur scale|Réaumur}} || 0 || 80 || Like Celsius, but with 80 instead of 100 || 3/8 || Abbreviated as °Ré, this system devised by {{w|René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur}} in 1730 was used in some places until the early 20th century, mostly for cheese-making.
<center>Celsius = Réaumur / 0.8.</center>
<center>Réaumur = Celsius × 0.8.</center>
The rating (3/8) is a joke on the boiling point of water in this system being 80 instead of 100 as it is in the Celsius scale; converting this to an out-of-ten scale would give 3.75/10, labeling it as more cursed than Fahrenheit but less so than Rømer.
|-
| {{w|Rømer scale|Rømer}} || 7.5 || 60 || Fahrenheit precursor with similarly random design || 4/10 || Abbreviated as °Rø, this scale was created by the Danish astronomer {{w|Ole Rømer}} around 1702. Much like Fahrenheit, it originally used the freezing point of ammonium chloride brine as the benchmark for 0°, and the scale is built with factors of 360 in mind with the boiling point of pure water at 60°. Like the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of pure water was not originally considered significant by Rømer, but the scale was later updated to give the value of 7.5 at this point.
<center>Celsius = (Rømer – 7.5) × 40/21.</center>
<center>Rømer = Celsius × 21/40 + 7.5.</center>
The Rømer scale is considered the predecessor of both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales, because Réaumur was inspired by Rømer's scale, Celsius based his work on Réaumur and Fahrenheit specifically designed his scale with more divisions than Rømer's to reduce the necessity for fractions.
|-
| {{w|Rankine scale|Rankine}} || 491.7 || 671.7 || Fahrenheit, but with 0°F [''sic;'' should be 0°Ra] set to absolute zero || 6/10 || The Rankine scale (°R or °Ra), created by {{w|William Rankine}} in 1859, is to Fahrenheit what the Kelvin scale is to Celsius: an absolute temperature scale. The scale is mostly obsolete, but is still occasionally used in legacy industrial operations where absolute temperature scales are required. It is described as more cursed than the otherwise identical Fahrenheit scale, despite being rooted at a more universal zero point.
<center>Celsius = (Rankine – 491.67) × 5/9.</center>
<center>Rankine = (Celsius + 273.15) × 9/5.</center>
Another comic, [[2292: Thermometer]], expresses disdain for this scale.
|-
| {{w|Newton scale|Newton}} || 0 || 33-ish || Poorly defined, with reference points like "the hottest water you can hold your hand in"{{acn}} || 7-ish/10 || The famous scientist and mathematician {{w|Isaac Newton}} published this scale in 1701, which was referred to by the the °N symbol. Sadly, the degrees of temperature specified do not correlate exactly with amounts of {{w|heat}} because his scale is nonlinear. His scale used three fixed-points: 0ºN, the temperature of air when water begins to freeze, 12ºN, the heat of blood in the human body, 34ºN, rapidly boiling water.[https://www.whipplemuseum.cam.ac.uk/explore-whipple-collections/meteorology/early-thermometers-and-temperature-scales] Therefore:
<center>Celsius = 37 × Newton / 12 if Newton ≤ 12;<br/>or 63 × (Newton – 12) / 22 + 37 if Newton > 12.</center>
<center>Newton = 12 × Celsius / 37 if Celsius ≤ 37;<br/>or 22 × (Celsius – 37) / 63 + 12 if Celsius > 37.</center>
Very few scientists other than Newton ever used this scale,{{citation needed}} but it did appear on commercial thermometers around 1758.[https://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image=10413117&wwwflag=&imagepos=43] The cursedness rating (7-ish/10) is a joke about the vagueness of the scale's definition.
|-
| {{w|Wedgwood scale|Wedgwood}} || –8 || –6.7 || Intended for comparing the melting points of metals, all of which it was very wrong about || 9/10 || Created by the potter {{w|Josiah Wedgwood}} in 1782, the '°W' scale was based on the shrinking of clay when heated above red heat, but was found to be very inconsistent.
<center>Celsius = (Wedgwood + 8) × 100/1.3.</center>
<center>Wedgwood = (Celsius × 1.3/100) – 8.</center>
The comic has a typo, as the scale is called Wedgwood, without the second 'e'.
|-
| Galen || –4? || 4?? || Runs from –4 (cold) to 4 (hot). 0 is "normal"(?) || 4/–4 || The Greek physician {{w|Galen}} suggested a "neutral" temperature around 180 A.D.,[https://www.loebclassics.com/view/galen-temperaments/2020/pb_LCL546.3.xml] when he was a prominent physician in the {{w|Roman Empire}}. Created by mixing equal parts of boiling water and ice, on either side of this neutral point he described four degrees of heat and four degrees of cold. Assuming his extremes were those points, Galen's scale is also nonlinear:
<center>Celsius = 22 × (Galen + 4) / 4 if Galen ≤ 0;<br/>or 78 × Galen / 4 + 22 if Galen > 0.</center>
<center>Galen = 4 × Celsius / 22 – 4 if Celsius ≤ 22;<br/>or 4 × (Celsius – 22) / 78 if Celsius > 22.</center>
This range from +4 to –4 is humorously used as its rating, implying –100% cursedness. Technically this makes it the least cursed of all the listed scales, but the idea of negative cursedness, and cursedness itself, is not clear. There is no standard modern abbreviation for Galen's scale.
|-
| {{w|Celsius#History|''Real'' Celsius}} || 100 || 0 || In Anders Celsius's original 1742 specification, bigger numbers are ''colder''; others later flipped it || 10/0 || Most scales' temperatures can be indefinitely large, but have an absolute minimum temperature. By starting at a maximum value and counting down, this scale is indeed cursed, as nearly all possible temperatures through 1.42×10<sup>32</sup>K, the maximum attainable physical temperature,[https://doi.org/10.4236/jamp.2024.1210198] will be negative on this scale. The cursedness rating (10/0) is a joke on the scale "flipping" the fixed points of modern Celsius. Division by zero is strictly undefined (see [[2295: Garbage Math]]) and may be interpreted in a number of counter-intuitive ways.
<center>Celsius = 100 – real_Celsius.</center>
<center>real_Celsius = 100 – Celsius.</center>
The original logic was that zero could be easily calibrated to the height of a {{w|Millimetre of mercury|column of mercury}} at the temperature of boiling water, and further measurements then made of the amount it ''reduced'' in height under cooler conditions. This orientation survives in the historic {{w|Delisle scale}} devised in 1732 by French astronomer {{w|Joseph-Nicolas Delisle}}, which arguably inspired the Celsius scale. The scale originally used by Professor Celsius was changed, to more or less the form already described above, after his death in 1745. Delisle's scale was never reversed.
|-
| [https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/459851/john-daltons-temperature-scale#459863 Dalton] || 0 || 100 || A nonlinear scale; 0°C and 100°C are 0 and 100 Dalton, but 50°C is 53.9 Dalton || 53.9/50 || {{w|John Dalton}} proposed a logarithmic temperature scale in 1802 during his work on what became {{w|Charles's Law}}. The scale is defined so that absolute zero is at negative infinity, with the exponent chosen to match the Celsius scale at 0 and 100:
<center>Celsius = 273.15 × ''e''<sup>(Dalton / 320.55)</sup> – 273.15.</center>
<center>Dalton = 320.55 × {{w|Natural logarithm|''ln''(}} (Celsius + 273.15) / 273.15 ).</center>
There is no standard abbreviation for Dalton's scale. While Dalton temperature is defined for all positive and negative numbers, the nonlinear scale is difficult to work with since the amount of heat represented by a change of one degree Dalton is not constant. Degrees Dalton differ from Celsius ones by as much as 3.9 degrees between 0 and 100, but diverge much more for more extreme temperatures. The rating (53.9/50) is a joke about the unit, as 53.9 Dalton equates to 50 degrees Celsius — i.e., it could be said to be 107.8% (even more than entirely) cursed.
|-
| °X || 42.9 || 151.4 || '''Title text:''' "In my new scale, °X, 0 is Earths' [''sic''] record lowest surface temperature, 50 is the global average, and 100 is the record highest, with a linear scale between each point and adjustment every year as needed." || Randall has not stated the cursedness of his new scale. || The {{w|Lowest temperature recorded on Earth|record lowest surface temperature on Earth}} as of 2024 is –89.2°C (–128.6°F), recorded at the {{w|Vostok Station|Vostok Research Station}} in Antarctica on July 21, 1983.[https://wmo.asu.edu/content/world-lowest-temperature] The average surface temperature as of 2023, the most recent available, is 14.8°C (58.6°F.)[https://climate.copernicus.eu/climate-indicators/temperature] The {{w|Highest temperature recorded on Earth|record highest temperature}} is 56.7°C (134.1°F), recorded on July 10, 1913 at {{w|Furnace Creek, California|Furnace Creek Ranch}} in Death Valley, California.[https://wmo.asu.edu/content/world-highest-temperature]

{{cot|Derivation and graph}}
To break the scale into two linear parts (below and above 14.8°C), we define two separate equations for each range:

1. Below 14.8°C (from –89.2°C to 14.8°C):
* 0 °X corresponds to –89.2°C
* 50 °X corresponds to 14.8°C

We calculate the slope m₁:

<center>m₁ = (50 – 0) / (14.8 – (–89.2)) = 50 / (14.8 + 89.2) = 50 / 104 ≈ 0.48</center>

Now, using the point (14.8°C, 50 °X), we calculate the intercept b₁:

<center>50 = 0.48 × 14.8 + b₁</center>

<center>50 = 7.1 + b₁</center>

<center>b₁ = 50 – 7.1 = 42.9</center>

Thus, the equation for temperatures '''below 14.8°C''' is:

<center>'''X = 0.48 × C + 42.9'''</center>

2. Above 14.8°C (from 14.8°C to 56.7°C):
* 50 °X corresponds to 14.8°C
* 100 °X corresponds to 56.7°C

We calculate the slope m₂:

<center>m₂ = (100 – 50) / (56.7 – 14.8) = 50 / 41.9 ≈ 1.19</center>

Now, using the point (14.8°C, 50 °X), we calculate the intercept b₂:

<center>50 = 1.19 × 14.8 + b₂</center>

<center>50 = 17.6 + b₂</center>

<center>b₂ = 50 – 17.6 = 32.4</center>

Thus, the equation for temperatures '''above 14.8°C''' is:

<center>'''X = 1.19 × C + 32.4'''</center>

;Freezing and boiling points of water

Freezing point of water (0°C): Since 0°C is below 14.8°C, we use the equation X = 0.48 × C + 42.9:

<center>X = 0.48 × 0 + 42.9 = 42.9</center>

So, '''the freezing point is 42.9 °X.'''

Boiling point of water (100°C): Since 100°C is above 14.8°C, we use the equation X = 1.19 × C + 32.4:

<center>X = 1.19 × 100 + 32.4 = 119 + 32.4 = 151.4</center>

So, '''the boiling point is 151.4 °X.'''

[[File:XvsC.png|400px|center]]

See also [[2701: Change in Slope]] for a general discussion of separate linear scales between three points.
{{cob}}
<center>Celsius = (°X – 42.9) / 0.48 if °X < 50;<br/>or (°X – 32.4) / 1.19 if °X ≥ 50.</center>
<center>°X = 0.48 × Celsius + 42.9 if Celsius < 14.8;<br/>or 1.19 × Celsius + 32.4 if Celsius ≥ 14.8.</center>

Due to average temperature records increasing almost every year as a result of {{w|climate change}},[https://www.space.com/last-12-months-broke-temperature-records] Randall's new °X scale must be re-calibrated each year. While such °X values for everyday temperatures will vary over time, more extreme values like absolute zero or the {{w|Tungsten#Physical properties|melting point of tungsten}} will shift vastly more.

("Surface" temperatures are measured 1.5 meters above ground inside a shaded shelter, to accurately represent air temperature, because measurements closer to the ground are usually quite different due to sunlight, {{w|albedo}}, and the thermal capacity of soil.)
|}

[[File:Temperature Scales.png|center|600px]]

===Examples===

Here are some various temperatures in the above scales:

{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
! Unit scale
! Typical {{w|room temperature}}
! {{w|Properties of water#Melting point|Freezing point of water}}
! {{w|Boiling point#Boiling point of water with elevation|Boiling point of water}}
! Midrange {{w|human body temperature|human body core temperature}}
! Recommended {{w|Refrigerator#Temperature zones and ratings|refrigerator temperature}}[https://www.realsimple.com/food-recipes/shopping-storing/food/refrigerator-temperature]
! Recommended {{w|Refrigerator#Freezer|freezer temperature}}[https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/food-safety-basics/freezing-and-food-safety]
! Typical warm bath temperature[https://www.kohlerwalkinbath.com/blog/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-ideal-bath-temperature/]
! Typical {{w|Coffee#Brewing|hot coffee}} temperature
|-
| Celsius || 22 °C || 0 °C || 100 °C || 37 °C || 2.5 °C || –18 °C || 39 °C || 77 °C
|-
| Kelvin || 295 K || 273 K || 373 K || 310 K || 276 K || 255 K || 312 K || 350 K
|-
| Fahrenheit || 72 °F || 32 °F || 212 °F || 98.6 °F || 36.5 °F || 0 °F || 102 °F || 171 °F
|-
| Réaumur || 17.6 °Ré || 0 °Ré || 80 °Ré || 29.6 °Ré || 2 °Ré || –14.4 °Ré || 31.2 °Ré || 61.6 °Ré
|-
| Rømer || 19.1 °Rø || 7.5 °Rø || 60 °Rø || 26.9 °Rø || 8.8 °Rø || –2 °Rø || 28 °Rø || 47.9 °Rø
|-
| Rankine || 531 °Ra || 492 °Ra || 672 °Ra || 558 °Ra || 496 °Ra || 459 °Ra || 562 °Ra || 630 °Ra
|-
| Newton || 7.1 °N || 0 °N || 34 °N || 12 °N || 0.8 °N || –5.8 °N || 12.7 °N || 26 °N
|-
| Wedgwood || –7.71 °W || –8 °W || –6.7 °W || –7.52 °W || –7.97 °W || –8.23 °W || –7.49 °W || –7 °W
|-
| Galen || 0 || –4 || 4 || 0.8 || –3.5 || –7.3 || 0.9 || 2.8
|-
| ''Real'' Celsius || 78 || 100 || 0 || 63 || 98 || 118 || 61 || 23
|-
| Dalton || 24.8 || 0 || 100 || 40.7 || 2.9 || –21.9 || 42.8 || 79.6
|-
| °X || 59 °X || 43 °X || 151 °X || 76.4 °X || 44.1 °X || 34.3 °X || 78.8 °X || 124 °X
|-
| Felsius || 47 || 16 || 156 || 67.8 || 19.5 || –9.2 || 70.6 || 123.8
|}

Here are the conversion formulas for the [[1923: Felsius|Felsius scale from comic 1923]]:
<center>Celsius = (Felsius − 16) / 1.4.</center>
<center>Felsius = Celsius * 7/5 + 16.</center>

==Transcript==

:Temperature Scales

:[A table with five columns, labelled: Unit, Water freezing point, Water boiling point, Notes, and Cursedness. There are eleven rows below the labels.]

:[Row 1:] Celsius, 0, 100, Used in most of the world, 2/10
:[Row 2:] Kelvin, 273.15, 373.15, 0K is absolute zero, 2/10
:[Row 3:] Fahrenheit, 32, 212, Outdoors in most places is between 0–100, 3/10
:[Row 4:] Réaumur, 0, 80, Like Celsius, but with 80 instead of 100, 3/8
:[Row 5:] Rømer, 7.5, 60, Fahrenheit precursor with similarly random design, 4/10,
:[Row 6:] Rankine, 491.7, 671.7, Fahrenheit, but with 0°F set to absolute zero, 6/10
:[Row 7:] Newton, 0, 33-ish, Poorly defined, with reference points like "the hottest water you can hold your hand in", 7-ish/10
:[Row 8:] Wedgewood, –8, –6.7, Intended for comparing the melting points of metals, all of which it was very wrong about, 9/10
:[Row 9:] Galen, –4?, 4??, Runs from –4 (cold) to 4 (hot). 0 is "normal"(?), 4/–4
:[Row 10:] ''Real'' Celsius, 100, 0, In Anders Celsius's original specification, bigger numbers are ''colder''; others later flipped it, 10/0
:[Row 11:] Dalton, 0, 100, A nonlinear scale; 0°C and 100°C are 0 and 100 Dalton, but 50°C is 53.9 Dalton, 53.9/50

{{comic discussion}}

[[Category:Charts]]
[[Category:Math]]
[[Category:Physics]]
[[Category:Science]]

3002: RNAWorld

2024-11-14T23:36:30Z

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{{comic
| number = 3002
| date = October 23, 2024
| title = RNAWorld
| image = rnaworld_2x.png
| imagesize = 275x345px
| noexpand = true
| titletext = Disney lore: Canonically, because of how Elsa's abiogenesis powers work, Olaf is an RNA-only organism.
}}

==Explanation==

This comic conflates {{w|biology}} and {{w|Disney World}}. Disney World is one of a franchise of theme parks with attractions based on various {{w|Walt Disney Company|Disney}} movies, while {{w|RNA world hypothesis}} is a proposed origin of life, in which RNA acts both as the genetic material and {{w|Ribozyme|the enzymatic machinery needed to copy it.}}

{{w|Ariel (The Little Mermaid)|Ariel}} is the titular character from {{w|The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|''The Little Mermaid''}}. In the film she likes to collect human
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artifacts; the comic replaces this with collecting {{w|nucleotides}}, the basic building blocks of {{w|DNA}} and {{w|RNA}}.

{{w|Ratatouille (film)|''Ratatouille''}} is a film about a French rat named Remy (''not'' "Ratatouille"; see {{tvtropes|IAmNotShazam|here}}) who dreams of becoming a gourmet chef. The comic conflates the soup that a chef might create for patrons to eat with "{{w|primordial soup}}", the environment that's believed to have existed on the early Earth when the processes of life began.

{{w|Elsa (Frozen)|Elsa}} is one of the lead characters from the {{w|Frozen (2013 film)|''Frozen''}} movies. In the film she has the magical ability to control ice and snow, and she used this power to make the snowman {{w|Olaf (Frozen)|Olaf}} come to life. The comic equates this with the original {{w|abiogenesis|emergence of life on Earth}}, or life from non-life, through {{w|ribozyme}} synthesis. Ribozymes are RNA molecules that, similarly to enzymes made of protein, catalyze biochemical reactions, such as the splicing of RNA during gene expression.

The title text continues this by saying that since Elsa's ability is based on ribozymes, Olaf's machinery of life must be based only on RNA, not DNA. This fits in with the theme of RNA World. Olaf generally appears to be (by mass) mostly just snow but, in common with various ideas about {{w|Comet nucleus#%22Dirty snowball%22|the makeup of cometary ice}} (and the role played by them in 'seeding' the young Earth with organic molecules), might well be thoroughly imbued with carbon-rich compounds ''other'' than those inherent in his carrot nose, coal buttons, and basic twig/stick elements. "Canonically" refers to {{w|Canon (fiction)|fictional canon}} (in this case Disney fiction), "the body of works taking place in a particular fictional world that are widely considered to be official or authoritative."

==Transcript==
:[Cueball, Ponytail, Jill, and another child with a dark hair (wearing Mickey/Minnie ears) are walking through an amusement park. Cueball has a water bottle and a backpack, Ponytail is looking at a map or a brochure with a helix structure shown on one page, Jill is pointing forward while holding a small stuffed toy (that looks like Stitch), and the other child has a popsicle. Cueballs, Megans, and Hairys can be seen in the background in gray. There are also a drop tower, a roller coaster, a shop, and a hot air balloon in the background.]
:Ponytail: Okay, kids, now that Ariel is done collecting nucleotides for Ratatouille’s primordial soup, let’s go watch Elsa initiate runaway ribozyme synthesis!

:[Caption below the panel:]
:Disney’s RNAWorld

{{comic discussion}}

[[Category:Comics featuring Cueball]]
[[Category:Multiple Cueballs]]
[[Category:Comics featuring Ponytail]]
[[Category:Comics featuring Jill]]
[[Category:Science]]
[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Fiction]]
[[Category:Disney]]

3003: Sandwich Helix

2024-11-14T23:36:20Z

HARRISWON2024!:

{{comic
| number = 3003
| date = October 25, 2024
| title = Sandwich Helix
| image = sandwich_helix_2x.png
| imagesize = 257x376px
| noexpand = true
| titletext = The number one rule of string manipulation is that youâ€™ve got to specify your encodings.
}}

==Explanation==
{{incomplete|Created by a BOTWICH HELIX - Please
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change this comment when editing this page. Do NOT delete this tag too soon.}}

This comic details an important issue in communication: even if the content of your message goes through, there might be important context that is necessary to correctly interpret it.

Communication is a way to convey ideas, and Cueball is explaining a concept of communication he calls a "Sandwich Helix". However, when pressed on what that is, he says nobody knows — indicating that, over the years, communication has failed to retain the meaning of this supposedly very important concept. The humor is that if this truly was the #1 rule of communication, communication should have been able to retain its meaning. On the basis that the number #1 rule about communication would probably be the ''most'' important rule, it might even be construed to be the rule about properly communicating all context (by some apparent analogy), which would be irony — but only if anyone still understood it.

The comic also displays the difference between meaning and message. Cueball is parroting a message (possibly a cliche repeated by self-help authors and influencers), even though the meaning is lost.

The fictitious "Sandwich Helix" plays on another concept in communication, the "{{w|Compliment sandwich|Compliment Sandwich}}" (a.k.a. "Shit Sandwich"), wherein a statement of criticism is sandwiched between two complimentary statements in order to make the negative statement easier to accept. The difference is that the Compliment Sandwich is a communication technique which is well known and whose meaning has not been lost (though it is currently disputed whether the technique is effective or whether it even might accomplish the inverse of its goals). A possible inspiration for the "helix" part is the {{w|Models of communication#Dance|Helical Model of Communication}}. The creator of the model, Frank Dance, emphasised the role of communication problems. He shows communication as a dynamic and non-linear process.

The title text contains several odd-looking characters that seem random (but are actually meaningful, to those familiar with them) where an apostrophe should be, as an example of a string that did NOT have its encoding handled properly. It is an example of {{w|Mojibake}}. Some special characters and symbols require a special {{w|Character encoding|encoding}} (such as UTF-8, Windows-1252, Shift-JIS, etc) in order to be stored and displayed properly, and are encoded using the equivalent of multiple characters. If the code to display the text doesn't understand what encoding was used and assumes a different/lesser level of encoding, you can get "garbage" similar to what is in the title text. In this case, the original character was probably <code>’</code>, which when encoded in UTF-8 and decoded in Windows-1252 becomes <code>â€™</code>. Similar garbage is seen in the title text of [[1683: Digital Data]].

==Transcript==
{{incomplete transcript|Do NOT delete this tag too soon.}}

:[Cueball, with his palm out, is standing in front of a class and facing Ponytail and Hairy, who are sitting at their classroom desks.]
:Cueball: Always remember the #1 rule of communication:
:Cueball: ''Sandwich Helix.''
:Ponytail: What does that mean?
:Cueball: Unfortunately, the context has been lost.
:Cueball: But we know the message, and that's the important part.

{{comic discussion}}

[[Category:Comics featuring Cueball]]
[[Category:Comics featuring Ponytail]]
[[Category:Comics featuring Hairy]]
[[Category:Unicode]]
[[Category:Language]]

3004: Wells

2024-11-14T23:36:04Z

HARRISWON2024!:

{{comic
| number = 3004
| date = October 28, 2024
| title = Wells
| image = wells_2x.png
| imagesize = 306x402px
| noexpand = true
| titletext = You do have to be careful, though--sometimes, instead of water, you hit this free fuel that you can sell for a lot of money instead.
}}

==Explanation==
Water is essential to life,{{cn}} and humans have long sought out places to get it. Freshwater surface sources like rivers and lakes most obviously dictate where people live, but are subject to changes of quantity and quality (e.g. the seasons/weather and what other people are doing with(/in) the water, upstream). Water can also be present beneath the surface in {{w|aquifer}}s, gradually having soaked through into various soil and/or rock layers, and may emerge (far more reliably and usably) from {{w|spring line settlement|handy seeps and springs}} where the local ground topology is favorable. But geology and geography don't coincide so usefully everywhere that someone requires water.

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Many modern countries (and a number of historic ones) will have at least some ability to pipe water from areas of high availability (e.g. from areas with reservoirs, natural or constructed) to other places of higher consumption (towns and cities), but not everyone will have [[1599: Water Delivery|piped water]] and may find it better to rely upon a {{w|well}}, a hole dug into the ground, deep enough to reach the local water to lift or [[2963: House Inputs and Outputs|pump]] out as needed. A borehole is similar, but may even puncture impermeable bedrock to access water held (under significant pressure) in rock layers below.

This comic pokes fun of the seemingly improbable characteristics of wells and boreholes; talking about how water "randomly" forms below the surface of the ground and how they "magically" refill themselves. It also pokes fun at how unrealistic it seems for people to have come up with the concept of wells in the first place; people would have had to dig a hole and hope that water appears.

In reality the complex systems of the {{w|water cycle}} dictate the formation of the underground 'pools' that the wells take from and the seeps of underground water that supply them, meaning that it's not really so surprising (nor necessarily quite as simple as it sounds) to get your water from beneath the ground, and is a process {{w|Elephant#Behaviour and ecology|not restricted to humans}}. This theme of things that seem like they shouldn't work, but do, has also been used in [[2540: TTSLTSWBD]], [[2115: Plutonium]], and [[2775: Siphon]], among others.

The title text points out that in some cases, people intending to drill water wells instead found oil beds. Oil is a very valuable energy source, so they became [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kCfGVLKr5oM very wealthy as a result]. This is the source of the idiom "struck oil" to mean receiving a windfall as a result of a lucky occurrence. But you have to be careful — if you blindly "drink whatever you find at the bottom", as Megan says, you'll [https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/injuries-and-poisoning/poisoning/hydrocarbon-poisoning get very sick] if it's oil rather than water. Oil tends to be buried much deeper than water, but each has its own (different) prerequisites that don't make it equally likely to get either (or both) at any given spot. A [[1662: Jack and Jill|prior comic]] made some related points about ground-hydrology.

This comic bears similarity to a [https://www.gocomics.com/calvinandhobbes/1993/06/11 Calvin and Hobbes comic from 1993], one Randall may have been aware of, that points out properties of a common drink that can appear disgusting when the underpinnings are known.

==Transcript==
{{incomplete transcript|Do NOT delete this tag too soon.}}
:[Megan is on the left hand side and is facing Cueball who is on the right side and facing her. Megan has her left hand raised.]
:Megan: I need water, so I think I'll dig a deep hole and drink whatever liquid I find at the bottom.
:Cueball: What will you do after you drink it all? Dig another hole?
:Megan: I dunno. Hopefully it magically refills itself or something.

:[Caption below the panel:]
:It's ridiculous that wells work.

{{comic discussion}}

[[Category:Comics featuring Megan]]
[[Category:Comics featuring Cueball]]
[[Category:Geology]]
[[Category:Comics sharing name|Wells]]

3005: Disposal

2024-11-14T23:35:57Z

HARRISWON2024!:

{{comic
| number = 3005
| date = October 30, 2024
| title = Disposal
| image = disposal_2x.png
| imagesize = 740x331px
| noexpand = true
| titletext = We were disappointed that the rocket didn't make a THOOOONK noise when it went into the tube, but we're setting up big loudspeakers for future launches to add the sound effect.
}}

==Explanation==
{{incomplete|Created by a MINESHAFT-TARGETING ROCKET - Please change this comment when editing this page. Do NOT delete this tag too soon.}}
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This comic came out a couple of weeks after the successful first attempt to 'catch' a rocket during {{w|Starship flight test 5}}, based upon {{w|SpaceX}} having {{w|Falcon 9 first-stage landing tests|an extensive history}} of bringing rocket stages back to Earth in a controlled manner. Whereas the traditional approach was for such rocketry to allow most of the initial launch-vehicle to be a single-use stage that was effectively destroyed once it had fulfiled its purpose, it has become a developmental aim across much of the commercial side of the industry to introduce as much reusability as possible in the mission hardware to potentially save costs and construction time.

In order to accomplish a successful recovery, expended stages have been given unprecedented ability to control their fall back to the ground, often in a manner that allows them to propulsively halt their descent directly over a prepared landing pad (on land or sea) and settle down softly enough on landing gear to be refurbished and reused (sometimes for {{w|List of Falcon 9 first-stage boosters#Booster 1061|more than twenty subsequent missions}}). For the recent Starship test, the one (and, as of this comic, only) attempt to recover its {{w|SpaceX Super Heavy#B9%E2%80%93B12|Super Heavy Booster}} involved being precisely guided to be ''caught'' by the {{w|SpaceX Starbase#Orbital Launch Pad A|original launch tower}}; though it is never expected to refly, as a test prototype, it survived the whole process. This is in contrast with [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bvim4rsNHkQ plenty of examples], where the landings (or their aftermath) were not quite so successful.

Though SpaceX is the current leader in such an accomplishments, there are other companies who are various degrees along a similar developmental route. [[Randall]] claims that he has an organisation that is amongst them, and has achieved the non-trivial feat of being able to direct the discarded rocket stage ''very precisely'', yet without that extra bit of ability to ensure that it doesn’t then subsequently explode. The team has therefore decided to exploit their achievement (to precisely control the rocket) to send it 'safely' into a hole that (barely larger than the rocket's cross-section, and with a sturdy lid directly manhandled by a [[Cueball]] employee) allows it to {{wiktionary|rapid unplanned disassembly|rapidly disassemble}} in a planned and 'safe' manner. Of course, as a [[:Category:Compromise|'compromise']], it does not achieve the original aims of recoverability and reusability, yet it also is intrinsically far more complicated than the default option of just letting the hardware generally fall to destruction somewhere in a handy 'empty' down-range area that {{w|Spacecraft cemetery|shouldn't inconvenience anybody}}.

With the comic depicting the 'disposed' stage as powering downwards, this might explain their lack of success in perfecting any form of intact recovery, as practical examples of this technology tend to spin the craft around to make use of the main thruster(s) for a {{w|retrorocket}}-assisted {{w|VTOL|landing}}, or at least don't try to counteract the passive deceleration provided by parachutes or other purposeful aerodynamic drag, in order to touch the ground at a survivable velocity.

An explosion in a sealed container is potentially much more dangerous than an explosion in the open, depending on the strength of the container. If the container is strong enough to hold the pressure from the explosion, that pressure could be released in a controlled fashion, safely. But if the container is too weak, it could suffer a catastrophic failure, sending shards of its walls and anything around it flying outwards at high speed. Even if the container is initially strong enough, it could be weakened by repeated explosions, and fail at a random time in the future. As the 'container' is mostly a hole dug into the ground, of indeterminate depth, it might be considered fairly robust in itself, especially if given a reinforced lining. However, this then risks forcing the majority of the resulting explosion up into the lid, which looks strong and heavy yet is closed at least partly by the effort of just one person. It also risks that worker being right next to the track of the descending rocket stage, where they would be at risk of experiencing all kinds of secondary damage, if not being directly in the explosion if they get the timing of the lid-closure wrong. An actual {{w|Operation_Plumbbob#Missing_steel_bore_cap|attempt to put a lid on an underground explosion}} succeeded only in blowing the lid off at such velocity that it was never found.

The title seems to refer to the sound effects of dragging an element into the trash on computers. Or, alternatively, the sound of a canister being sucked into a vacuum tube. This is perhaps a reference to Tesla vehicles being quiet and having "vroom" noises pumped into the cabin to satisfy customers.

==Transcript==

:[A two-stage rocket is ascending with a plume of exhaust behind it]
:[The first stage falls off and the second stage ignites]
:[The first stage begins to fall, turned off]
:[The first stage reignites to control trajectory and attitude]
:[The first stage falls toward a large, but barely wider hole with a lid. A Cueball is holding the lid open, which has a hinge attaching it to the ground]
:[Cueball pushes the lid closed]
:Click
:[The first stage, now out of sight, explodes, with Cueball shielding his ear with one hand and flinching away from the loud noise]
:BOOOOM

:[Caption below the panels:]
:Our rockets were good at steering, but we couldn't get them to land without exploding, so we just dug a rocket disposal hole.

{{comic discussion}}

[[Category:Comics featuring Cueball]]
[[Category:Space]]
[[Category:Rockets]]

3006: Demons

2024-11-14T23:35:33Z

HARRISWON2024!:

{{comic
| number = 3006
| date = November 1, 2024
| title = Demons
| image = demons_2x.png
| imagesize = 285x458px
| noexpand = true
| titletext = Though they do appreciate how much he improved the heating system for the flame pit.
}}

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==Explanation==
{{w|Maxwell's demon}} is a thought experiment devised by {{w|James Clerk Maxwell}} that appears to refute the {{w|second law of thermodynamics}}, which roughly says that heat always flows from hotter regions to colder. In the thought experiment, two chambers, both containing a gas at the same temperature, have a door between them. A being (later called a demon by {{w|Lord Kelvin}}) lets only fast-moving gas molecules move from the first chamber to the second, and only slow-moving ones move from the second chamber to the first. The second chamber's gas gradually warms as the average speed of its molecules increases, and the first chamber's gas likewise cools, apparently contradicting the second law. However, the actions of such a demon would use up at least the amount of energy that could later be extracted from having a gas separated into hot and cold parts, so such a demon could not gain energy and Maxwell's demon does not break the second law of thermodynamics. The second law of thermodynamics is a fairly common theme in xkcd, last being mentioned in [[2848: Breaker Box]].

This demon behaves very differently from mythological {{w|demons}}, which exist in the afterlife (usually some form of {{w|hell}}) and punish evil humans after death by causing them great suffering (for example, by boiling them in oil or casting them into flame pits). [[Randall]] jokes that if Maxwell's demon were to encounter more stereotypical mythological ones, he would probably not fit in very well because of his very different approach, proposing treating humans like the particles of the thought experiment. While a few physics-savvy humans might feel offended by such treatment, real suffering could be caused by the anxiety of knowing that, once you choose to cross the door, you are not allowed to return ''for all eternity''.

The scientist Maxwell challenged traditional notions about physical phenomena by providing modern statistical explanations of "large-scale effects" such as temperature changes and modern infinitesimal explanations of "distant effects" such as electromagnetic forces. In a similar vein, Maxwell's demon in the comic challenges the mythological demons' traditional notion of torture by proposing modern psychological torture.

The title text continues the joke by suggesting that while Maxwell's demon's idea for torturing the souls of the damned might seem whimsical to the other demons, it could still be used to heat the flame pits better. The other demons' appreciation of this technical improvement mirrors real-life situations where kids that "have trouble fitting in with the others" due to their unusual ideas for games and atypical interests (e.g., in thermodynamics) occasionally earn some appreciation when their cleverness is found to be useful.

This comic was published on 1 November, 2024, the day after Halloween, around the time when many contemporary comic strips have demonic, supernatural or other spooky themes, as well as 4 days before the anniversary of Maxwell's passing (5th of November).

==Transcript==
:[Three demons, Cueball-like in general appearance but with horns and pointed tails, are standing together while surrounded by flames. The leftmost demon is holding a pitchfork and the next one has his hands down. They are looking at the third to the right standing a bit apart from them. This last demon, Maxwell's demon as given in the caption, holds his palms up while looking at the other two.]
:Demon with pitchfork: What's our plan for the souls today? Boil them in oil?
:Middle demon: We could cast them into the flame pit.
:Maxwell's demon: What if we set up two rooms with a door in between, but– get this– '''''we only let them go through it one way!'''''

:[Caption below the panel:]
:Maxwell's Demon had trouble fitting in with the others.

{{comic discussion}}

[[Category:Physics]]
[[Category:Religion]]
[[Category:Demons]]

3007: Probabilistic Uncertainty

2024-11-14T23:35:13Z

HARRISWON2024!:

{{comic
| number = 3007
| date = November 4, 2024
| title = Probabilistic Uncertainty
| image = probabilistic_uncertainty_2x.png
| imagesize = 474x385px
| noexpand = true
| titletext = "One popular strategy is to enter an emotional spiral. Could that be the right approach? We contacted several researchers who are experts in emotional spirals to ask them, but none of them were in a state to speak with us."
}}

==Explanation==
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This comic is about the difficulty of dealing psychologically with 50/50 odds, and is likely inspired by the {{W|2024 United States presidential election}}, as this comic was released the day prior. The odds of the election as reported by many media sources were close to 50/50<ref>https://www.270towin.com/2024-presidential-election-polls/</ref><ref>https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2024/us/elections/polls-president.html</ref><ref>https://projects.fivethirtyeight.com/polls/president-general/2024/national/</ref>, where the pre-election polls showed roughly a 50/50 chance of either {{w|Kamala Harris}} or {{w|Donald Trump}} being elected. It seems more and more people suffer from pre-election anxiety<ref>https://www.cnet.com/health/mental/stressed-about-election-day-9-expert-approved-protect-your-mental-health/</ref><ref>https://www.cbsnews.com/news/election-2024-stress-anxiety-tips-experts/</ref><ref>https://jedfoundation.org/resource/election-stress-tips-to-manage-anxious-feelings-about-politics/</ref><ref>https://fortune.com/well/article/election-anxiety/</ref><ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/04/us/politics/election-anxiety.html</ref> and the uncertainty of the results doesn't help.
This 50/50 scenario is the third scenario shown in the comic.

Further, with regards to N/A - the odds of "precisely" 50/50 are probabilistically zero, unless the event under consideration is something relatively trivial such as a coinflip or die roll (and even with those it is extremely unlikely the coins or dice are perfectly "fair"). Any scenario that involves social sciences, such as an election (or even a single relationship) will never be precisely 50/50 (or, indeed, *any* discrete value).

{| class="wikitable"
!Odds
!How to think about it in an emotionally healthy way
!Explanation
|-
| Good outcome more likely || Recognize that the bad outcome is possible, but be reassured that the odds are in your favor || An optimistic attitude with a dose of realism.
|-
| Bad outcome more likely || Prepare for the bad outcome while remembering that the future isn't certain and hope is justified || A realistic attitude with a dose of optimism.
|-
| Precisely 50/50 || ????? N/A ???? || {{w|N/A}} stands for "not available", "no answer", "not applicable" or "not assessed". The actual worst case scenario, with no single obvious stance to take. (Thus also leaving ambiguous which fall-back position one should prepare to hold in reserve.)
|}

When facing a situation with equal odds of a positive or negative outcome, it is possible to prepare emotionally for either result. Here are some strategies to consider:

;Acknowledge and accept uncertainty
:Recognize that uncertainty is a natural part of life. By accepting that you cannot control the outcome, you can reduce anxiety and focus on what you can manage—your response.

;Practice {{w|defensive pessimism}}
:This strategy involves setting low expectations and contemplating potential negative outcomes. By doing so, you can prepare yourself to handle setbacks and reduce anxiety. Research indicates that defensive pessimism can be an effective way to manage stress and improve performance.

;Develop {{w|coping}} mechanisms
:Equip yourself with strategies to manage emotions regardless of the outcome. Techniques such as mindfulness, deep breathing, and positive self-talk can help maintain emotional balance.

;Focus on what you can control
:Concentrate on aspects within your control, such as your effort, preparation, and attitude. This focus can empower you and reduce feelings of helplessness.

;Set realistic expectations
:Understand that both success and failure are possibilities. By setting realistic expectations, you can mitigate disappointment and appreciate positive outcomes more fully.

;Seek support
:Discuss your feelings and concerns with trusted friends, family, or a mental health professional. Sharing your thoughts can provide relief and offer new perspectives.

By practicing those strategies, you may prepare yourself emotionally to handle either outcome with resilience and composure.

The title text is a joke making use of ambiguous wording: "researchers who are experts in emotional spirals" could either refer to researchers who study emotional spirals, or researchers who are undergoing emotional spirals themselves. Evidently, all the researchers "we" contacted were the latter, and thus unable to advise the comic.

==Transcript==
{{incomplete transcript|Do NOT delete this tag too soon.}}
[A table titled "Coping With Probabilistic Uncertainty", with two columns labeled "Scenario" and "How to think about it in an emotionally healthy way". The boxes in the Scenario column contains text followed by a rectangle split into two parts; the left part is a smiley face, the right part is a frowny face with slanted, angry eyes.]

Row 1, column 1: "Good outcome more likely". The smiley face portion of the rectangle is about 75%.
Row 1, column 2: "Recognize that the bad outcome is possible, but be reassured that the odds are in your favor".

Row 2, column 1: "Bad outcome more likely". The smiley face portion of the rectangle is about 25%.
Row 2, column 2: "Prepare for the bad outcome while remembering that the future isn't certain and hope is justified".

Row 3, column 1: "Precisely 50/50". The rectangle is split in half.
Row 3, column 2: "????? N/A ????"

==Trivia==
* This comic was posted a day before Election Day in the US, where the media has been reporting (based off of voter polls) that the 2 presidential candidates ([[Kamala Harris]] and [[Donald Trump]]) are closely contesting for the White House. This may be a possible reason behind the creation of this comic.

* Randall has dealt with the possibility of a tied electoral count 12 years before in ''what-if? [https://what-if.xkcd.com/19 #19]''

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{comic discussion}}

[[Category:Psychology]] [[Category:Statistics]]

3008: Proterozoic Rocks

2024-11-14T23:35:03Z

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{{comic
| number = 3008
| date = November 6, 2024
| title = Proterozoic Rocks
| image = proterozoic_rocks_2x.png
| imagesize = 740x272px
| noexpand = true
| titletext = These rocks are from a time before eyes, brains, and bones, pieces of a land warmed by an unseen sun.
}}

==Explanation==
{{incomplete|Created by a BLIND PROTEROZOIC BOT - Please change this comment when editing this page. Do NOT delete this tag too soon.}}

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{{w|Proterozoic eon}} rocks such as the 1.1 billion-year-old rocks in the comic were formed 2500 to 538.8 million years ago, some of them surviving {{w|plate tectonics|tectonic movements}} until today. Proterozoic rocks which were formed from sediment at the bottom of an inland sea such as the former {{w|Western Interior Seaway}} would be in North America today.

The first animal eyes are believed to have [https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1716824114 developed on trilobites] half a billion years ago, around the transition between the proterozoic and {{w|phanerozoic eon}}s at the start of the {{w|Cambrian}} period. This transition began a great proliferation of biological diversity known as the {{w|Cambrian explosion}}.

Cueball talks about feeling a connection to the rock, which spans "a vast abyss of time that stretches back as far as the eye can see." This could be interpreted as expressing the need to connect to something that exists vastly beyond the current turbulent era, to put it into perspective and to find strength in knowing that nature transcends human troubles. The title text extends this theme.

The distant past, before the emergence of complex eye-bearing life, is illustrated by the final panel in black. This indicates that Randall is showing what is perceived rather than what was physically present, as light existed and would have made the Earth's surface visible, had there been eyes to see it. The dark far past may also be an analogy for the darkened far future, as there may be [https://www.euronews.com/green/2023/09/26/triple-whammy-of-extreme-heat-scientists-pinpoint-when-earth-could-become-uninhabitable no human life on Earth in around 250 million years]. This timeline is far beyond the immediate cares of the current world, applying further perspective to present worldviews.

[[2013: Rock]] also compares the age of rocks to milestones in the development of life.

==Transcript==
{{incomplete transcript|Do NOT delete this tag too soon.}}

:[Cueball is seen at a distance, walking amid a rocky landscape.]
:I love being near Proterozoic rocks.
:These ones are 1.1 billion years old.
:That's so, '''''so''''' old.

:[Cueball standing next to a rock.]
:Eyes evolved half a billion years ago. The first time a rock was ever looked at, these rocks were already 500 million years old.

:[Cueball sitting atop a large rock.]
:People say geologic time makes them feel small. But when I touch this rock, it's like I'm a part of it, spanning a vast abyss of time that stretches back as far as the eye can see.

:[A completely black panel except for text in white lettering.]
:And then 500 million years farther.

== Trivia ==

*This comic was published on the day when {{w|Donald Trump}}'s re-election as president of the USA was announced. Randall was vocal in his support for the opposing candidate {{w|Kamala Harris}}; the xkcd homepage featured [https://web.archive.org/web/20241106175959im_/https://imgs.xkcd.com/news/harris_news@2x.png a drawing with a "Vote for Harris" sign] [https://web.archive.org/web/20241106215812/https://xkcd.com/ during the run-up to the election]. The drawing remained in place through the remainder of the week, accompanying comic 3009.

*The use of "farther" in the final panel could be erroneous; {{wiktionary|further#Usage notes|for some}}, "further" is the preferred word for metaphorical usage (e.g. for stretches of time).

{{comic discussion}}

[[Category:Comics featuring Cueball]]
[[Category:Geology]]
[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Comics with inverted brightness]]

3009: Number Shortage

2024-11-14T23:34:48Z

HARRISWON2024!:

{{comic
| number = 3009
| date = November 8, 2024
| title = Number Shortage
| image = number_shortage_2x.png
| imagesize = 284x269px
| noexpand = true
| titletext = "10 minutes ago we were down to only 2 0s!" "How many do we have now?" "I ... don't know!!"
}}

==Explanation==
{{incomplete|Created by a BOT WITH 11 0S AND 100 1S. NO, WAIT... - Please change this comment when editing this page. Do NOT delete this tag too soon.}}
This comic presents a situation where the ability to use numbers is a limited resource. Even quantifying how many numbers are left uses up some of those numbers when stating the results.

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In real life, being able to write or say digits is not a limited resource.{{cn}} However, the comic does parallel many {{w|Math Blaster Episode I: In Search of Spot|educational video games}} for young children where numbers and mathematical concepts are treated as living people or factory goods, in order to give some sort of story or context to the math-related activities. In addition, the plight faced by the shortage resembles the {{w|look-and-say sequence}} where trying to quantify the list changes it, requiring it to be quantified again (which changes it again, and so on).

The comic conflates numbers with decimal digits. So when [[Miss Lenhart]] says "15 2s and 12 3s", that uses up two 2s (one in "2s" and one in "12") and one 3 (in "3s"). She adjusts the counts as she's speaking, so when she says "13 2s", that uses up another 3, leaving only 10 3s as she's completing the sentence.

In the title text, she uses the last two 0s when saying that they had two 0s left, so now they have no more 0s. But she can't use the number 0 to describe this situation because they're now out of them.

Miss Lenhart could have taken a different approach by saying "14 2s and 11 3s", which would be accurate once it has been said.

Jokes with a similar theme been made about letters, such as shortages of vowels (and later consonants) in {{w|The Onion}}'s [https://web.archive.org/web/20020124120633/www.theonion.com/onion2816/vowels2816.html "Clinton Deploys Vowels to Bosnia"].

===Continuation===

A continuation of the pattern would go:

* "We have only 15 2s and 12 3s left."
* "No, wait, 13 2s and 10 3s."
* "No, wait, 12 2s and 9 3s."
* "No, wait, 10 2s and 8 3s."
* "No, wait, 9 2s and 7 3s."
* "No, wait, 8 2s and 6 3s."
* "No, wait, 7 2s and 5 3s."
* "No, wait, 6 2s and 4 3s."
* "No, wait, 5 2s and 3 3s."
* "No, wait, 4 2s and 1 3."
* "No, wait, ? 2s and 0 ?s."

At that point, having used up the last 3 at the end of the previous line, Miss Lenhart would lack the necessary 3s to articulate that there are "3 2s and 0 3s."

* "No, wait, 2 2s and 0 ?s."
* "No, wait, 0 ?s and 0 ?s."

Or perhaps at this point, she might just say "We have run out of some digits," since she can no longer articulate which ones or, indeed, how many.

==Transcript==
:[Miss Lenhart is standing on the left, facing Cueball and Megan on the right.]
:Miss Lenhart: The Math Department number shortage is getting worse. We have only 15 2s and 12 3s left.
:Miss Lenhart: No, wait, 13 2s and 10 3s.
:Miss Lenhart: No, wait...

{{comic discussion}}

[[Category:Comics featuring Miss Lenhart]]
[[Category:Comics featuring Cueball]]
[[Category:Comics featuring Megan]]
[[Category:Math]]
[[Category:Comics with lowercase text]]

3010: Geometriphylogenetics

2024-11-14T23:34:24Z

HARRISWON2024!:

{{comic
| number = 3010
| date = November 11, 2024
| title = Geometriphylogenetics
| image = geometriphylogenetics_2x.png
| imagesize = 316x391px
| noexpand = true
| titletext = There's a maximum likelihood that I'm doing phylogenetics wrong.
}}

==Explanation==
{{incomplete|Created by EUCLIDIAN GENOMETRY - Please change this comment when editing this page. Do NOT delete this tag too soon.}}

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{{w|Phylogenetics}} refers to the practice of examining relationships among things that follow the principle of "descent with modification of progeny". In the course of descent with modification, one thing may give rise to two (the progeny), different modifications happen to each, and those modifications become established. Iterated "splits" over time yield a tree of objects; it is the purpose of phylogenetics to recover ("reconstruct") these trees, and use the information gained to inform study of the things contained. Phylogenetics has been most commonly applied to the classification/taxonomy of biological species and investigations of their evolutionary history, but it has also been used to examine the evolution of genes and biosynthetic pathways. Similar conceptual approaches have been used in the study of human languages and their evolution.

Data for phylogenetic analyses may come from any attributes ("characters") of the things being examined. {{w|Computational_phylogenetics|Rigorous techniques}} for these analyses became available starting in the {{w|Willi_Hennig|1950s}}, and these replaced earlier methods based largely on the individual judgement of experts. In phylogenetic studies of organisms, their DNA is far and away the most data-dense source of information, and consequently, most present-day investigations are based on analyses of selected genes and, increasingly, whole genomes. Thanks to the advent of more robust datasets, and more robust methods of data analysis, it is now commonplace for studies, especially on relatively understudied creatures, to reconstruct an evolutionary history (a phylogeny) that is radically different from what had previously been assumed. This is the "phylogenetic revolution" referred to in the caption. One example is the genus {{w|Hippopotamus|<em>Hippopotamus</em>}}, which had been considered a relative of pigs, which the animals somewhat resemble, until modern data and methods revealed it to be more closely related to whales, despite the animals being very different physically (hippos spend time in water, but [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-YRJCSZRJU can't swim]).

This comic presents a tree, which resembles and purports to be a phylogenetic tree, in which the endpoints ("terminal taxa") are geometric shapes. This has been given the name "geometriphylogenetics" — a portmanteau of "{{w|geometry}}" and "phylogenetics". The claim is that triangles have been moved from the lower part of the tree (where they would be closely related to squares, rectangles, pentangles, and the like) to the upper part (placing them closer to circles and ellipses). This is a riff on the findings, and even the wording, of authentic phylogenetic research papers that report "revolutionary" results. The absurdity, and the joke, is that geometries do not change over time. Human understanding might change, but triangles and circles and rectangles themselves did not evolve or descend from ancestors, they are not progeny of some other geometries of ages past, and therefore phylogenetic principles and techniques don't apply to their study. Moreover, geometries do not contain DNA,{{cn}} so genetic analysis, even if it was ever relevant, is impossible.

The title text alludes to {{w|Computational_phylogenetics#Maximum_likelihood|maximum likelihood}}, one of the most robust, and most frequently used, methodologies for phylogenetic analysis. The method builds a number of trees from the data, assigns to each a probability that it conforms to a pre-selected model of evolution, and then selects the tree that has the highest (maximum) likelihood of conformity to the model. In this case, though, the statement "There's a [high probability] that I'm doing phylogenetics wrong" doesn't just have the maximum probability of the available options; it has the maximum ''possible'' probability of 1, because it is definitely the case.

==Transcript==
{{incomplete transcript|Do NOT delete this tag too soon.}}

:[A tree diagram, or a dendrogram is shown, consisting of lines that branch off from left to right, starting with one horizontal line on the left. Eight results are shown on the right: ellipse on Path 1, circle on Path 2, triangle on Path 3, parallelogram on Path 4, trapezoid on Path 5, square on Path 6, rectangle on Path 7, and a pentagon on Path 8. The paths are listed in order top to bottom.]
:[Path 3 and the triangle are bold black, while the other branches are dimmer. The paths are connected as follows: Path 2 and 3 are connected, then both connect together to Path 1; Path 4 and 5 are connected, as are Path 6 and 7, and these two paths are connected altogether; Path 8 is then connected to the branch containing Paths 4 to 7. All of Paths 1 to 3 are then connected to Paths 4 to 8, the branches all culminating in a single line on the left.]

:[Caption below the panel:]
:The phylogenetic revolution continues:
:Triangles were long believed to be related to squares, but genetic analysis proves that they are actually very pointy circles.

{{comic discussion}}

[[Category:Geometry]]
[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Charts]]
[[Category:Statistics]]

3011: Europa Clipper

2024-11-14T23:33:36Z

HARRISWON2024!:

{{comic
| number = 3011
| date = November 13, 2024
| title = Europa Clipper
| image = europa_clipper_2x.png
| imagesize = 333x356px
| noexpand = true
| titletext = They had BETTER make this a sample return mission.
}}

==Explanation==

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{{incomplete|Created by a JOVIAN DESSERT. Please consider deleting this tag too soon, but refrain from doing so.}}

[[File:Animation of Europa Clipper trajectory around Jupiter.gif|thumb|right|The ''Europa Clipper's'' projected course around {{w|Jupiter}}, represented as the stationary <span style="color:green;">green</span> dot. In <span style="color:gold;">gold</span> is Jupiter's moon {{w|Callisto (moon)|Callisto}}, in <span style="color:cyan;">cyan</span> is the moon {{w|Europa (moon)|Europa}} — the primary target of the spacecraft's study — and in <span style="color:#FF4500;">orange-red</span> is the innermost of Jupiter's four {{w|Galilean moons|"Galilean"}} moons, {{w|Io (moon)|Io}}. The spacecraft's track is shown in <span style="color:magenta;">magenta</span>. Jupiter's largest moon {{w|Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede}} is not shown, but its gravitational pull affects the ''Clipper's'' trajectory. A mission goal is to achieve a 6:1 {{w|orbital resonance}} with Europa [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Martin-Ozimek/publication/383115312_AAS_24-433_Europa_Clipper_Mission_Analysis_Pump_Down_Trajectory_Design/links/66bcd845311cbb094938dbd6/AAS-24-433-Europa-Clipper-Mission-Analysis-Pump-Down-Trajectory-Design.pdf by September 2034]. ]]

The ''{{w|Europa Clipper}}'' space probe was launched from the {{w|Kennedy Space Center}} in Florida on [https://europa.nasa.gov/mission/about/ October 14, 2024]. It is expected to arrive at Jupiter and begin exploration of Jupiter's moons, particularly {{w|Europa (moon)|Europa}}, in April of 2030.

Europa is an icy moon. Water ice covers its surface. Around 15 to 25 kilometers (10 to 15 miles) beneath the ice, there is expected to be liquid water which may contain some [https://europa.nasa.gov/why-europa/ingredients-for-life/ basic forms of life]. To sample this liquid, its icy crust would need to be breached. The thickness of the ice dwarfs the ''Europa Clipper's'' 31 meter span.

Europa's surface of ice over liquid water can be compared to the caramelized crust on the popular dessert {{w|crème brûlée}}, perhaps because the {{w|Cassini-Huygens}} probe, after landing on Saturn's moon Titan in January of 2005, found that its surface had what was described as [https://www.sciencenews.org/article/world-unveiled-cr%C3%A8me-br%C3%BBl%C3%A9e-titan a "crème brûlée" consistency]. The hard surface of the caramel cream dessert is traditionally cracked open with a {{w|Tableware#Spoon|spoon}}, and so [[Randall]] posits that such equipment will be deployed by the ''Europa Clipper''.

In truth, no such spoon is present on the probe, and Europa's icy crust is too thick to be penetrated by a spoon of such size. Advanced measures are needed to prevent contamination of liquid water by Earth's organisms such as {{w|tardigrade}}s, {{w|deinococcus radiodurans}}, or {{w|bacillus subtilis}}. The ''Europa Clipper's'' course has been charted to avoid any contact with the surface of Europa (although it will fly through some sparse material it ejects into space) so as to prevent {{w|Planetary protection|contamination by microorganisms from Earth}}.

The successful deployment of any spacecraft's instrument is considered a cause for celebration because deployable spacecraft instruments often fail to correctly extend, unfurl or undock. The ''Clipper'' has a magnetometer that will be used at the end of a 8.5 meter boom (not apparent in the comic which, spoon extension aside, is an otherwise fairly accurate depiction) as part of its study of the moons' environment.

<div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; align-items: center; margin: 1em 0;">
<div style="text-align: center; margin: 0 1em;">
[[File:Europa_-_Perijove_45_(cropped).png|200px|alt=Europa]]
<div>Europa</div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center; margin: 0 1em;">
[[File:2014_0531_Crème_brûlée_Doi_Mae_Salong_(cropped).jpg|200px|alt=Crème brûlée]]
<div>Crème brûlée</div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center; margin: 0 1em;">
[[File:Europa_Clipper_spacecraft_model.png|200px|alt=The Europa Clipper spacecraft]]
<div>The ''Europa Clipper'' spacecraft</div>
</div>
</div>

The title text expands on the joke by stating that the spacecraft "had BETTER" return samples of Europa to Earth. However, the ''Europa Clipper'' is not a {{w|sample-return mission}}.

==Transcript==
{{incomplete transcript|Do NOT delete this tag too soon.}}

:[A space probe with two rectangular solar panels, a circular dish of the front, and a very large spoon extending beneath, longer than the span of both solar panels]

:[Below the panel:]
:Good news: NASA's '''''Europa Clipper''''' is en route to Europa and has successfully deployed its crème brûlée spoon.

==Trivia==
Initially, the ''Europa Clipper'' mission was planned to include a lander component, but it was removed from the project early on. The Europa Lander proposal lags significantly behind the Clipper in development and has not secured funding. An actual sample return mission is currently far into the future of {{w|Ocean Worlds Exploration Program|the pertinent plans for exploration}}.

In {{w|Arthur C. Clarke}}'s novel ''{{w|2010: Odyssey Two}}'', the monolith aliens tell humanity ''"All these worlds are yours — except Europa. Attempt no landing there."'' Contrary to the suggestion of the comic, no landing or any other physical interaction beyond observation of the surface and analysis of the ejecta of Europa is planned.

In {{w|Greek mythology}}, {{w|Europa (consort of Zeus)|Europa}} was a {{w|Phoenician}} princess whom {{w|Zeus}}, the king of the gods, abducted after transforming himself into a bull. The name of the continent Europe may derive from this legend, though alternative theories suggest it originates from ancient Greek words meaning "wide-gazing" or "broad face." Additionally, there is an {{w|Oceanid}} named {{w|Europa (Greek myth)|Europa}}, one of the many daughters of the {{w|Titans}}, {{w|Oceanus}} and {{w|Tethys}}. The name Europa is also used in other mythological contexts. Jupiter's moon Europa was named after the Phoenician princess, following the tradition of naming Jovian moons after Zeus's lovers.

{{comic discussion}}
[[Category:Space]]
[[Category:Space probes]]
[[Category:Food]]